This section on the history and general information on Zambia was reproduced from Zambia Review 2006 with the kind permission of Directory Publishers of Zambia.

 INTRODUCTION

Zambia began a transition from a socialist to market-oriented economy in the early 1990s, when an ambitious programme of economic liberalisation was initiated. This is helping to unlock the country's vast potential, with government committed to creating an enabling environment in which business can flourish and economic growth generate improvements in both social and physical infrastructure.

While mining and agriculture underpin the economy and continued to reap economic rewards, a growing number of secondary industries are springing up. Tourism is another valuable asset, and the country's abundant wildlife, outstanding national parks and natural attractions offer a tantalizing taste of the 'real Africa.'

TOPOGRAPHY

Ranking among the smaller countries in the region, Zambia has a surface area of 752,612 square kilometres. A landlocked nation, she is bordered by Angola to the west, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) to the west and north, Tanzania to the northeast, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to the south.

The north and northeast of the country form a broad, undulating plateau covered by deciduous savannah, small trees, grassy plains and marshland. At 2,150 metres, Mwanda Peak near the Malawi border is the highest point in Zambia. The vast plateau slopes away to the south, where the country's main river, the Zambezi, forms a natural border with Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Other important rivers comprise the Luangwa, which joins the Zambezi from the northeast, and the Kafue, which flows from Zambia's north-western highlands. One of the natural wonders of the world, the spectacular Victoria Falls is the region's foremost tourist attraction.

CLIMATE

Zambia is on average some 1,200 metres above sea-level, and this high altitude combined with the country's geographical position has produced both temperate and sub-tropical ecosystems. Temperatures range from about 15 to 33 degrees Celsius and the climate is generally pleasant, with extreme heat limited to the southern valleys around the Zambezi River.

The country has three distinguishing seasons, with the wet season lasting from November through to April. The mean annual rainfall is around 1,400 millimetres in the northern region and 700 millimetres in the southern, eastern and western provinces. Cropping season is between May and August.

• Summer (November - April) is warm and wet with temperature between 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees Fahrenheit) and 27 degree Celsius (81 degrees Fahrenheit).

• Winters (May - August) are cool and dry; temperatures range from 16 degrees Celsius (60 degrees Fahrenheit) to 27 degrees Celsius (81 degrees Fahrenheit.

• Spring (September - October) brings hot and dry conditions, and temperatures from 27 degrees Celsius (81 degrees Fahrenheit) to 32 degrees Celsius (90 degrees Fahrenheit).

HISTORY

One of the cradles of humankind, the earliest evidence of homo sapiens in Zambia dates back some 100,000 years, with remains of human habitation having been found in the region of Kabwe. There is evidence that Bantu- speaking peoples reached the area around 800 AD, and that from approximately 1,000 AD Arab and Swahili traders had began exploring the region. However, the ancestors of most of Zambia's current ethnic groups arrived from present-day Angola and the DRC between 16th and 18th centuries.

Trade with both the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts was fruitful, and brought the first European visitors to the area sometime during the 18th century - Portuguese explorers following the trade routes from the coast into the interior. The first half of the 1800s saw successive upheavals in southern Africa, with many refugees resettling in Zambia. These included the Ngoni, who fled Shaka and the mighty Zulu nation's Difaqane (forced migration). At much the same time the Kololo arrived in Zambia and settled in Lozi territory on the Zambezi River.

In 1851 David Livingstone, the celebrated Scottish doctor, explorer and missionary, first arrived in the region now known as Zambia, searching for a route into the interior. A fierce critic of the slave trade, Livingstone's efforts attracted other missionaries, who were later followed by a stream of European prospectors and hunters.

In the scramble for control of Africa in the late 19th century, Zambia eventually came under the jurisdiction of the British South Africa Company (BSAC), which administered the region after signing treaties with several African leaders, including Lewanika, the Lozi king. The area became Northern Rhodesia in 1911. In 1924 the British took over the administration of the protectorate.

Massive copper ore deposits were discovered in the north-central region in the 1920s, and the large-scale mining of copper and lead began in earnest over the following two decades. Mining operations in the Copperbelt area attracted a variety of European administrators, technicians and skilled labourers. However, it was largely local Africans who worked the mines, often under appalling conditions, in order to pay the 'hut tax' introduced by the colonial administration.

By 1910 some 1,500 Europeans had settled in the country, and by 1958 this number had grown to about 72,000. With the indigenous peoples experiencing increasing white domination, a rising tide of African nationalism led to strikes and protests. In 1948 the Northern Rhodesia African Congress was formed, giving a formal voice to the country's disenfranchised majority, whose opposition to colonial rule continued to mount over the next decade.

In 1953 the federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was created by the British government. This encompassed Northern Rhodesia ( Zambia), Southern Rhodesia ( Zimbabwe) and Nyasaland ( Malawi). Protests were heard both locally and abroad, and the federation lasted for barely a decade. The United National Independence Party (UNIP), formed in 1959 by Kenneth Kaunda, was in the fore-front in pressing for an end to British rule. In 1964 the federation was dissolved, and on 24th October 1964 Northern Rhodesia became the independent Republic of Zambia, taking her name from the Zambezi River. Kaunda was elected Zambia's first President, and was re-elected in 1968 and 1973, 1978, 1983 and1988, serving for a total of 27 years.

The 1970s and 1980s were turbulent decades. Problems at home were exacerbated by falling copper prices and rising fuel costs. Together with much of the rest of the world, Zambia imposed sanctions on Ian Smith's white ruled Rhodesia in 1965, but had to face many negative consequences. These included raids by Rhodesian army, which targeted Zambia's infrastructure, and the disruption of traditional trade routes through Rhodesia to Mozambique. These problems were alleviated somewhat by the building of a petroleum pipeline between Dar-es-Salaam and Ndola in 1968, and the opening of a railway line between Zambia and Tanzania in 1975.

By the mid 1980s President Kaunda was forced to introduce economic austerity measures as a condition for aid. The ensuing food shortages and unemployment led to rioting and strikes, intensifying the mood for political change and the abolition of Zambia's one party state that was established in 1973. In 1991 the constitution was amended, opposition party’s legalised and full elections held in 1991.

A decisive victory was won by trade unionist Frederick Chiluba's Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) on the promise of both economic and political reform. Steps taken since then have included reforming the civil service as well as privatising a number of government enterprises, and relations have greatly improved with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Work Bank and investors.

Elected in December 2001, Chiluba’s successor Levy Mwanawasa of the MMD now heads one of the broadest based democratic parliaments ever seen in Zambia, with healthy opposition from other parties, including the United Party for National Development and Patriotic Front. In 2002 the president began a far reaching anti-corruption campaign. During 2004 Zambians celebrated four decades of peaceful coexistence as one unity country, with 24 October, 2004 marking forty years of independence from Britain.

Democracy and the State

Zambia reverted to a parliamentary democracy in 1991. The executive branch of government is headed by the President, while the 150-member unicameral national assembly (elected through direct, universal suffrage) is the seat of legislative power. The independent judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, with Judges appointed by the President and ratified by the National Assembly.

The ruling party is the Movement for Multi-Party Democracy (MMD), which has been in power since 1991. The other main political parties comprise the United Party for National Development (UPND), Patriotic Front (PF), Forum for Democracy and Development (FDD), United National Independence Party (UNIP), United Liberal Party (ULP), Zambia Republican Party (ZRP) and Heritage Party. Elections are held every five years, with the president serving a maximum of two-five year terms. Zambia held her last elections on 28 th September 2006, which saw the re-election of President Mwanawasa.

THE ZAMBIAN ECONOMY

Since the 1990s the Zambian economy has been characterized by market orientated policies, with the country becoming increasingly integrated into the world economy. No longer a command-type economy based on import substitution, the structural adjustment programmes and stabilization policies of the past 14 years have contributed to a more outward looking attitude characterized by trade liberalization and the promotion of exports within a stable macroeconomic context.

Market liberalization, deregulation and privatization have served to enhance competition, efficiency and openness in commerce and industry. The role of the state has been considerably reduced, with private sector activity encouraged through the provision of an enabling environment and investment stimulated through several attractive incentive schemes. Furthermore, foreign direct investment is not confined to resource based sectors, but encompasses transport, telecommunications and utilities.

Reforms which have been enacted include the abolition of foreign exchange controls, the deregulation of interest and foreign exchange rates, removal of price controls and consumer subsidies, reform of land tenure, reduction of tariffs and embargoes to open up domestic markets, a programme of privatization for many parastatals, and the strengthening of financial markets through merchant banking and the stock exchange. After tax profit, dividends and capital may be repatriated up to 100 percent without restriction, and there is statutory protection of investments.

Fiscal discipline in order to maintain macroeconomic stability has been a priority in recent years, with the spotlight on reform of the budgeting and spending systems. This was a prerequisite for securing a new Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as well as reaching the completion point under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. A new PRGF programme has subsequently been put in place and is set to run until 2007.

Zambia ’s good macroeconomic performance under the PRGF, coupled with progress in social sectors such as health and education, led to her attainment of the enhanced HIPC initiative Completion Point in April, 2005. As a result of this and the G8 agreement in July 2005, Zambia is to benefit from approximately US$5.3 billion in debt relief. As such, budgetary resources that would have been needed to service external debts are available for poverty reducing expenditures in the social and economic sectors – amounting to some US$100 million per annum from 2006.

The country is presently faced with the twin challenges of HIV/AIDS and an over reliance on copper mining. Furthermore, Zambia’s social and physical infrastructure must be improved, both for economic development and to reduce poverty. Despite these challenges and against a back drop of rising international oil prices, the economy has performed remarkably well, with positive GDP growth registered every year since 1999. Zambia has the potential for further economic diversification and expansion, with present economic policies aimed at promoting broad-based growth and consolidating economic as well as political stability.

The process will be facilitated through the effective implementation of Zambia’s 5 th National Development Plan, which covers the period 2006 to 2010, succeeding the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) and Transitional National Development Plan. Donors, in consultation with the Zambian government, are designing a Joint Assistance Strategy for Zambia in order to improve donor harmonization in support of the national development plan and reduce the burden on government.

Furthermore, the United Nation’s Development Programme (UNDP) is assisting the Zambian government in developing a national long term vision outlining development targets for the year 2030. Serving as the foundation for the 5 th National Development Plan, the vision also integrates the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) within the plan.

Membership of Regional and International Organizations

Zambia is a member of, among others, the Southern African Development Community (SADC); The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA); African Union (AU); African Development Bank (ADB); Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO); The Commonwealth; United Nations; International Labour Organisation (ILO); World Trade Organisation (WTO); The World Bank; International Monetary Fund (IMF); Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA); World Health Organisation (WHO); Non-aligned Movement; New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD); EU Economic Partnership Agreement; The African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA).

Principal Economic Sectors

The traditional focus of the Zambian economy has been mining and quarrying in particular the mining and refining of copper and cobalt. The country holds ten percent of the world’s known reserves of copper and is ranked among the top producers of copper internationally. Zambia is also the world’s largest cobalt producer. These metals made the country one of the most prosperous in southern Africa between 1965 and 1975, accounting for 95 percent of export earnings and contributing 45 percent of government revenues. Despite difficulties in the 80s and 90s the sector has seen a turnaround in recent years, particularly in the copper mining sub-sector. This is due to factors such as improved production techniques, increased capital investment and substantially higher copper prices on international markets.

Significant developments in the agricultural sector have identified it as a major engine for attaining broad-based economic growth as well as protecting the social sector. Food security is a key issue, and a great deal of this sector is involved in subsistence farming. The country’s fertile tracts of land produce crops such as maize, sorghum, millet and cassava, which are mainly for domestic consumption. Export crops comprise sugar, coffee, groundnuts, rice and cotton as well as horticultural produce.

Tourism is another area of great economic potential for Zambia, which is home to spectacular national parks and game reserves of international standing. While growth in tourism has been boosted through improved marketing and investments by the private sector, resulting in substantial increase in tourist numbers, the sector nevertheless remains largely underdeveloped, with the provision of hospitality services, accommodation and other tourism-related infrastructure earmarked for development.

Zambia ’s secondary industries have considerable growth potential and their development is vital to economic diversification. In 2003, the manufacturing sector contributed 10.9 percent to the country’s GDP, with the most important sub-sectors being food processing beverages, and tobacco, as well as leather and textiles. Secondary processing of metals takes places, including the smelting and refining of copper, and has led to the manufacturing of metal products and the development of vehicle assembly plants. Fertilizers, chemicals, explosives, and construction materials such as cement are also produced. Petroleum is refined, and there is an active oil industry.

The reduction of import duties on raw materials has seen the revival of some industries, while improved macroeconomic conditions and increased domestic demand are also driving growth. The production of spare parts and components is presently being encouraged.

Trade

External trade has been progressively liberalized since the early 1990s in response to the phenomenon of globalization. Government incentives to develop export industries in favour of import substitution have led to improved foreign exchange earnings.

Trade barriers have been substantially reduced and quantitative restrictions eliminated. With trade procedures and documentation becoming further standardized and simplified, export permits are no longer necessary. While export licences are required, they are little more than a formality, and import controls are only maintained for health, security and associated reasons. Both export and import licences are issued by commercial banks.

Customs duties are now the main trade policy instrument, and even these have been substantially reduced over the years to support private sector development and strengthen export competitiveness. Tariffs range from 0 to 5 percent for most basic raw materials, 15 percent for intermediate goods and 25 percent for final products and capital goods.

Zambia ’s most successful traditional exports remain its metals and minerals, in particular copper and cobalt. There has been steady growth of non traditional exports (NTEs) such as primary agricultural products, floriculture, sugar, gemstones, timber, electricity, cement and textiles.

Principal imports include foodstuffs crude oil, chemicals, machinery, iron, steel and manufactured goods, including vehicles, with South Africa supplying most of Zambia’s imports.

Zambia ’s leading trade partners are the European Union (EU) countries, such as Germany and the United Kingdom. There is also international trade with Japan and the United States of America (USA), and regional trade with South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

PEOPLE AND PLACES

At the time of the 2000 census, Zambia had a total population of 10 285 631. By mid-2005, this figure was estimated to stand at around 11.26 million. Of this, 98 per cent of the country’s inhabitants are African, the main ethnic groups being Bemba, Nyanja, Lozi, Luvale and Tonga, with the remaining 2 per cent comprising those of Asian and European origin.

English is the official language and is widely spoken throughout the country. There are 70 indigenous languages, including Bemba, Nyanja, Tonga, Lozi, Kaonde, Luvale and Lunda. While Zambia is a Christian country, there are also a number of indigenous beliefs as well as religions such as Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, although these are in the minority.

Main Centres

 Zambia has one of the lowest population-to-land ratios on the continent – a little over 11 million people in a country half the size of Europe. It nevertheless has a very large urban population due to migration from rural to urban areas brought about by increasing employment opportunities in the mines and other industries post independence. Population density is highest in the urban and industrial centres, particularly Lusaka in Lusaka Province, Ndola and Kitwe on the Copperbelt, and Livingstone in Southern Province.

Lusaka : Situated in Lusaka Province in the southern part of the country, approximately 100 kilometres from the border with Zimbabwe and 1300 metres above sea level, Lusaka lies at the junction of the main highways to the north, south, east and west, and is easily accessible by air, rail and bus. A railway line connects the city to both the southern African states and Tanzania in east Africa, while Lusaka International Airport links Zambia to the global community as well as local tourist destinations.

This vibrant and energetic capital has an estimated population of some 1.2 million, making it Zambia’s largest city and one of the fastest growing cities in the central African region. Once a small agricultural village, today this sprawling commercial, administrative and financial centre is undergoing a facelift. Downtown is abuzz with new construction, building and renovation. Amenities include shopping centres and an impressive modern shopping mall, top class hotels, conference centres, restaurants and fast food outlets. Most of shops – including banks and bureaux de changes – may be found along Cairo Road. In addition to five star hotels, accommodation encompasses guesthouses, B&Bs, lodges and game reserves.

The city’s bustling markets are well worth a visit, with a plethora of stalls selling an amazing variety of goods. Local arts and crafts are displayed at the Zintu Community Museum, and there are also excellent galleries, including the Mpala Gallery and the Henry Tayali Visual Arts Gallery at the Showground’s.

Some of the city’s other attractions comprise the stately Lusaka National Museum, Munda Wanga Environmental Park, Kalimba Reptile Park, and Kabwata Cultural Village, where tourists can enjoy the spectacle of traditional dances and purchase arts and crafts.

Ndola : With population of approximately 418 400 people, Ndola is the bustling capital of Zambia’s Copperbelt, the most economically developed region of the country. Becoming increasingly important in terms of commerce and industry, with a major copper refinery situated here, the city boasts an international airport as well as a transportation network connecting it to the area’s industrial and mining concerns and linking it to other important centres. Two national newspapers are printed here – the Times of Zambia and the Sunday Times. The oil pipeline from Dar-es-Salaam in Tanzania ends its 1 700 kilometre journey at the Ndola refinery.

The well-developed city centre has a number of office and shopping complexes as well as luxury accommodation. Tourist attractions comprise the Slave Tree, Dag Hammarskjöld Memorial Site, and the Copperbelt Museum, with the annual Zambia International Trade Fair taking place here every July. Good accommodation is available at the New Savoy and Mukuba hotels.

Kitwe : Some 64 kilometres west of Ndola, Kitwe is Zambia’s third largest population centre, and was estimated to have 406 100 inhabitants in 2004. The copper mining industry plays an important role in the economy due to the area’s rich mineral resources, and the town’s central location makes it ideal for industrial development. Food products, furniture, clothing, cement and plastics are manufactured here, and Kitwe is the site of the Copperbelt University, Zambia second university. Downtown comprises an array of modern shops, hotels and entertainment venues, with comfortable accommodation also to be found at guesthouses. The centre possesses a number of good hospitals.

Livinsgtone: Situated about 300 kilometres southwest of Lusaka, the charming town of Livingstone was established in 1905 following the bridging of the Zambezi Gorge, and takes its name from the Victorian explorer David Livingstone.

The town has always attracted visitors form around the world, and things are little different today. As the former capital of Zambia and home to the Victoria Falls, one of the world’s natural wonders, Livingstone is a must-see for anyone visiting the southern African region. There are top hotels and casinos, an impressive new waterfront development, numerous recreational facilities and leisure activities, with tour operators able to provide details of the many excursions and attractions.

Attractions in the Mosi-oa-tunya National Park range from game drives to adventure sports such as white-water rafting, micro-lighting and bungee jumping. Other places of interest include a slice of traditional Africa at Maramba Cultural Village, an acclaimed collection of steam locomotives at the Railway Museum, and fascinating archaeological and historical items at the Livingstone Museum, which also houses a collection of David Livingstone’s memorabilia.

2005 marked the centenary of the town of Livingstone, which was proclaimed in February 1905, as well as the 150 th anniversary of the sighting of the Victoria Falls by Dr David Livingstone on 16 November, 1855.

Chingola: Known for its scenic attractions, this green and pleasant Copperbelt town is characterized by lush vegetation and an abundance of trees and flowers – a result of the area’s high rainfall. The largest open-cast mine in Africa is situated here. There are also a number of golf courses in the areas, with the Nchanga Golf Course reputed to be one of the most picturesque on the continent. Accommodation ranges from the basics to the ultra luxurious.

 Chipata: Situated a mere hour and a half from Lilongwe in Malawi, Chipata was already a busy trading post a century ago. Today its bustling markets sell everything from fruit and vegetables to clothing and curios. The presence of some beautiful and colourful mosques is testament to the town’s substantial Indian population.

Other centres: The fourth largest centre in Zambia, Kabwe is the hub of Central Province and also has some substantial copper deposits in the vicinity. Another important copper-mining town, Mufurila, is close to the DRC border as well as the centres of Kitwe and Ndola.

Luanshya has the oldest copper mine in Zambia, and is an ideal stopover on the way to the Copperbelt. The growing industrial town of Kafue is situated some 50 kilometres south of Lusaka on the magnificent Kafue River, which is a focal point for tourism. To be found on the Great North Road as well as the Tazara railway line, Kasama has filling stations, banks, a hospital, police station and post office, as well as a major airport.